Speech Act Theory in J.L. Austin's Phenomenology Linguistics

(the English translation of  "Teori Tindak Tutur dalam Linguistik Fenomenologi J.L. Austin", posted on Linguastudia, October 2nd, 2015) 

Introduction

A person’s orientation towards life can often be assessed through their style of language, whether in everyday conversations or more formal situations. The language style in question is not merely evaluated from a technical standpoint, such as word choice, morphology, or phonology. What is equally important are the meanings and contexts presented by the speaker in their utterances. This is where language can be philosophically analyzed.

Throughout the history of philosophy, several philosophers have studied language from various aspects. However, one philosopher particularly focused on examining the philosophy of everyday language: John Langshaw Austin from Oxford University, England. Through his phenomenological linguistics, Austin analyzed language philosophically through human speech acts, leading to his Speech Act Theory.

This paper discusses Austin’s Speech Act Theory. The discussion begins with the history of the philosophy of language, explores Austin’s theory, and concludes with its application.

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I. Philosophy of Language and Phenomenological Linguistics
The early 20th century saw the emergence of the philosophy of language, viewed as one of the most phenomenal schools of thought and categorized as logocentric due to its focus on language as the center of philosophical discourse. Based on the principle that linguistic expressions must align with their use and rules, the philosophy of language is considered to have a critical and neutral method, capable of clearing prior philosophers’ language of circular, unclear, and detached thinking, especially from societal realities.

Additionally, the philosophy of language is regarded as having a unique method in philosophy, as it is not only used to explore the essence of language but also as a theory to explain, elucidate, and test the truth of linguistic expressions. (Wibowo, 2011:4) Among the prominent philosophers who significantly contributed to the development of this field were Ludwig Wittgenstein and J.L. Austin. Wittgenstein laid the groundwork for modern philosophy of language, while Austin, his student, carried it forward. To understand Austin’s thoughts, it is necessary first to explore Wittgenstein’s life, works, and ideas.

a. Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Life and Works
Ludwig Wittgenstein, an Austrian philosopher of Jewish descent, was born in Vienna on April 26, 1889, as the youngest of eight children. In 1906, Wittgenstein began his studies at a technical school in Berlin and later pursued aeronautical engineering in Manchester. His research in jet engines and propellers sparked an interest in mathematics and the philosophy of mathematics.

In 1911, G. Frege, a mathematician, advised him to study philosophy under Bertrand Russell at Cambridge University. There, Wittgenstein began his career as a philosopher, eventually becoming a renowned professor of philosophy, though he resigned from this position in 1947. His most notable works are Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus and Philosophical Investigations. Wittgenstein passed away on April 29, 1951, in Cambridge from cancer, after battling the illness for two years. (Bertens, 2001:41-43)

b. Wittgenstein’s Ideas
Wittgenstein’s two major works reflect his primary philosophical ideas, which later influenced J.L. Austin’s philosophy. In Tractatus, Wittgenstein discussed the logic of language. One significant aspect of his exposition was the “picture theory,” which can be regarded as a theory of meaning. Wittgenstein argued that language depicts reality and that meaning is essentially the representation of factual states in reality through language.

In contrast, in Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein rejected three assumptions from his earlier theory:

1. That language is used solely to establish factual states of affairs.
2. That sentences derive meaning in one way—depicting factual states.
3. That all types of language can be formulated into a perfect logical language, even if this initially seems challenging.

Wittgenstein suggested that words can be used in many ways, much like tools. Just as there are different tools with different functions, so too are there diverse ways of using language, which he termed “language games.” These language games represent the various ways language is employed, highlighting the need for philosophy to investigate and describe these usages without interfering in their formation. (Bertens, 2001:51-53)

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II. Speech Act Theory According to J.L. Austin
Wittgenstein’s ideas influenced J.L. Austin to some extent, but Austin explored his philosophical path further. This section discusses Austin’s life, works, and his Speech Act Theory.

a. J.L. Austin’s Life and Works
John Langshaw Austin was born on March 26, 1911, in Lancaster, England. He studied classical philology and philosophy at Oxford, where he later became a professor. During World War II, Austin served in the British Intelligence Corps, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel.

Despite publishing very few papers during his lifetime, Austin made a significant impact through his lectures and discussions. Among British philosophers, few were as enthusiastic as Austin in examining ordinary language. He believed that observing language use revealed distinctions and nuances refined over generations by language users to express their thoughts.

Austin emphasized that language use must be connected to the concrete situations in which utterances occur and the phenomena they refer to. This belief underpins his phenomenological linguistics, where phenomena are explained through linguistic analysis. (Bertens, 2002:60-61)

Austin’s major works, published posthumously by J.O. Urmson and G.J. Warnock, include:

• Philosophical Papers (1961)
• Sense and Sensibilia (1962)
• How to Do Things with Words (1962)

b. Speech Act Theory
Austin’s theory, detailed in How to Do Things with Words, posits that in saying something, we also perform an action. Speech acts underscore that utterances reflect the speaker’s actions and responsibilities. Speech acts are classified into:

1. Locutionary acts: Utterances conveying definite information, further divided into phonetic, phatic, and rhetic acts.
2. Illocutionary acts: Utterances that carry intent, categorized into verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives, and expositives.
3. Perlocutionary acts: The effect of an utterance on the listener, emphasizing the listener’s response.

Austin argued that linguistic analysis should not stop at understanding the meaning of an utterance but also consider its impact.

III. Application of Speech Act Theory: Laboratory Techniques

After being introduced and presented in various forums and lectures, Austin's Speech Act Theory, as part of phenomenological linguistics, became increasingly recognized and accepted among philosophers and students of the Philosophy of Language at Oxford University. This rapid development can be attributed to the following characteristics of Austin's Philosophy of Language (Wibowo, 2011:63-64):

1. Emphasizing questions about how and in what ways words are used.
2. Highlighting the use of various methods of linguistic analysis as a form of protest against the uniform methodologies of structural linguistics.
3. Stressing the detailed description of language use, as this can help solve many philosophical problems.

By emphasizing the use of ordinary language for philosophical purposes, Austin's Speech Act Theory continues to hold relevance in today's academic and intellectual life. The current era of rapid and global development still offers us paradigmatic freedom and broad intellectual insights. When we are solely preoccupied with proving a general theory that is inherently illusory, we risk losing the values of life that hold primary context in our everyday existence (Wibowo, 2011:51-52).

a. Forms and Steps of Laboratory Techniques

To demonstrate the relevance of Speech Act Theory, Austin developed a method called the laboratory technique. This method is a linguistic analysis approach used to examine the philosophical expressions of earlier philosophers. Austin's main consideration in applying his theory in this method is the critical nature of the language used by philosophers. Philosophers should ideally demonstrate their intelligence by developing and utilizing the richness and diversity found in ordinary language (everyday language) to clearly and distinctly explain existing philosophical problems.

The implementation of the laboratory technique involves forming discussion groups tasked with analyzing the language used by philosophers. The process begins with collecting and investigating specific terms and expressions found in the philosophical texts of past philosophers, then identifying their basis in ordinary language. The final step is drawing conclusions about whether these specific terms and expressions align with the philosopher's intended meaning (Wibowo, 2011:59-60).

b. The Relationship Between Laboratory Techniques, Metaphysics, and Idealism

Austin’s laboratory technique becomes particularly evident when applied to metaphysical or idealist thinking, which regards a “second world” as having a higher degree of reality and therefore measurable through the senses. Austin examined a series of terms that idealists claimed encapsulated all of reality, such as "spirit," "matter," "truth," "transcendence," and "immanence." According to Austin, these metaphysical and idealist terms do not relate to matters of truth or falsehood but are entirely meaningless.

Thus, Austin emphasized that language should not mislead philosophical inquiry but instead be viewed as a source of knowledge. In line with this, Austin explored the relationship between perception and language by testing the doctrine that humans never directly experience material objects but perceive them through sensory data.

From this perspective, Austin argued that truth depends greatly on the situation in which something is presented. In other words, what is considered true is highly dependent on the concrete situation in which a word, expression, or sentence is uttered. Related to this, Austin highlighted that philosophical errors often arise from misinterpretations absorbed through sensory data.

These errors are a logical consequence of the vast and complex nature of philosophical thought, particularly when approached using a single method. Such an approach often leads to deadlocks for philosophers in solving philosophical problems related to specific expressions, such as "freedom," "truth," or "human personality." Consequently, the laboratory technique is seen as highly systematic, more accurate, and holistic, as it has proven capable of analyzing the meaning of words, expressions, and syntactic forms in relation to the writer's intent (Wibowo, 2011:60-62).

Conclusion

Austin’s Speech Act Theory offers significant contributions to both the philosophy of language and linguistics. Its emphasis on the use of everyday language, along with the analysis of how language functions in its specific contexts, provides a philosophical method that is not only accessible but also applicable in broader intellectual realms.

Austin’s exploration of language as a source of knowledge, rather than a source of error, shifts the focus from abstract metaphysical questions to the concrete realities embedded in everyday communication. Through this lens, philosophy gains a more practical approach to understanding and solving problems in human discourse.

This work not only enriches our comprehension of the relationship between language, thought, and reality but also paves the way for further investigations into how language functions as a tool for human interaction and knowledge-sharing. Austin’s Speech Act Theory remains a vital foundation for studies in contemporary linguistics, philosophy, and other humanities disciplines.

Bibliography

Austin, J.L. 1955. How To Do Things With Words. Harvard: Harvard University Press.

Bertens, K. 2002. Filsafat Barat Kontemporer: Inggris-Jerman. Jakarta: Gramedia.

Liberman, Alvin M. and Whalen, Doug H. May 2000. On The Relation of Speech to Languange in “Trends of Cognitive Science Vol. 4 Ed. 5”.

Longworth, Guy. 2010. J. L. Austin (1911-1960). University of Warwick.

Parker, Frank. 1986. Linguistics For Non-Linguists. London: Talyor & Francis. Ltd.

Wibowo, Wahyu. 2011. Linguistik Fenomenologis John Langshaw Austin: Ketika Tuturan Berarti Tindakan. Jakarta: Bidik-Phronesis Publishing